R语言入门教程.pdf

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Rე࿽ࡥࢺ
Rე࿽г࠺:ඔऌٳ༅ა߻๭֥щӱߌ࣢

RDevelopmentCoreTeam
June10,2006:.
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Contents
1࿂࿂࿂ંંંაააࠎࠎࠎԤԤԤ1
࿽ߌ࣢...............................1
ೈࡱބ໓֖..........................1
๤࠹................................2
๤.............................2
ࢌ޺൐Ⴈ.............................2
૊࿞਀...............................3
౼ݦඔބۿି֥Ϻᇹྐ༏.....................3
਷aؓնཬཿ֥ૹۋđ֩֩..................3
਷֥࠺ၫބ۷ڿ.....................4
਷໓ࡱ֥ᆳྛބൻԛ֥ሇཟ֞໓ࡱ................4
......................4
2ࡥࡥࡥֆֆֆҠҠҠቔቔቔĠĠĠඔඔඔᆴᆴᆴაააཟཟཟਈਈਈ5
..............................5
ෘ...............................5
྽ਙ............................6
...............................7
ാᆴ.................................7
...............................7
ႄཟਈ(indexvector);ඔऌࠢሰ֥ࠢ࿊ᄴაྩڿ.........8
ః෰ো྘............................9
3ؓؓؓའའའđđđଆଆଆൔൔൔބބބඋඋඋྟྟྟ10
ൔބӉ؇........................10
؇............................11
౼ބഡᇂ..........................11
োљ..............................11
4ႵႵႵ྽྽྽ၹၹၹሰሰሰააა໭໭໭྽྽྽ၹၹၹሰሰሰ12
...............................12
()აraggedඔቆ......................12
྽ၹሰ...............................13
5ඔඔඔቆቆቆބބބइइइᆔᆔᆔ14
..................................14
ႄބඔቆ֥ሰॶ......................14
ႄඔቆ...............................15
i:.
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CONTENTSii
()..............................16
ෘđᇗگ൐Ⴈܿᄵ...........16
ຓࠒ............................17
ၬሇᇂ............................17
૊֥इᆔۿି............................18
...........................18
୉.....................18
......................19
ൔ.........................19
୅ކࠣQRٳࢳ.......................19
ࡹٳ౵इᆔđcbind()ބrbind()..................19
৵ࢤݦඔc()đᆌؓඔቆ֥ႋႨ....................19
௔ඔі..........................20
6ਙਙਙіііބބބඔඔඔऌऌऌᆠᆠᆠ21
..................................21
ࡹބྩڿਙі............................22
৵ࢤਙі...........................22
.................................22
ࡹඔऌᆠ..........................22
()აdetach()......................23
൐Ⴈඔऌᆠ..........................23
಩ၩਙі.........................24
৘ෆ෬ਫ਼ࣥ.........................24
7ՖՖՖ໓໓໓ࡱࡱࡱᇏᇏᇏ؀؀؀౼౼౼ඔඔඔऌऌऌ25
()...........................25
()...............................26
ࡹඔऌ֥ࠢթ౼..........................26
ః෰RۿିЇᇏᄛೆඔऌ.................27
...............................27
8ۀۀۀੱੱੱٳٳٳ҃҃҃28
|ቔູ၂۱๤࠹і֥ࠢކ......................28
࡟ҩඔऌࠢކ֥ٳ҃.........................29
࡟ဒ.........................32
9ეეეओओओቆቆቆaaa࿖࿖࿖ߌߌߌބބބ่่่ࡱࡱࡱҠҠҠቔቔቔ35
ൔეओቆ.............................35
॥ᇅეओ...............................35
ࡱᆳྛğifეओ.......................35
࿖ߌđrepeatބwhile............35
10щщщཿཿཿሱሱሱ֥֥֥࠭࠭࠭ݦݦݦඔඔඔ37
ࡥֆൕ২...............................37
ၬק.........................38
.........................38
'...'................................39
.............................39
؟۷ࠩൕ২.............................39:.
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CONTENTSiii
౵ቆഡ࠹ི֥ੱၹሰ(E±ciencyfactors)..........39
೷Ԣյႄඔቆᇏ֥෮Ⴕ଀ӫ.................40
־݂֥ඔᆴࠒٳ.......................41
(scope)..............................41
࣢...............................43
োљđ๙Ⴈݦඔބؓའק໊.....................44
11R֥֥֥๤๤๤࠹࠹࠹ଆଆଆ྘྘྘45
ၬ๤࠹ଆ྘Ġ܄ൔ.........................45
(contrasts)........................48
྘...............................48
൤٢ଆ྘ྐ༏֥๙Ⴈݦඔ....................48
༅აଆ྘бࢠ.........................49
༅і(ANOVAtables).................49
୅ކଆ྘.............................50
ၬཌྟଆ྘.............................50
(families)..........................51
()...........................51
྘...................53
...........................53
...........................54
྘..........................55
12๭๭๭ྙྙྙݖݖݖӱӱӱ56
߻๭ଁ਷.............................56
()...........................56
ൕ؟ჭඔऌ.........................57
ൕ๭ྙ...........................58
߻๭ݦඔ֥ҕඔ.....................58
߻๭ଁ਷.............................59
࿐ᇿ൤...........................61
൏ਈሳุ......................61
๭ྙ֥ࢌ޺..............................61
൐Ⴈ๭ྙҕඔ.............................62
࿃ྟэ۷(Permanentchanges):par()ݦඔ........62
ൈྟэ۷ğ๭ྙݦඔ֥ҕඔ................63
๭ྙҕඔਙі.............................63
๭ྙჭ෍...........................63
࠺.........................64
๭шჸ(Figuremargins)...................65
؟๭ߌ࣢...........................65
౺׮...............................67
๭і..................67
؟ᇗ๭ྙഡС.........................67
׮෿๭ྙ...............................68:.
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Chapter1
࿂࿂࿂ંંંაააࠎࠎࠎԤԤԤ
࿽࿽࿽ߌߌߌ࣢࣢࣢
R൞၂สႮඔऌҠቔa࠹ෘބ๭ྙᅚൕۿିᆜކطӮ֥สࡱbЇওğ
²Ⴕི֥ඔऌթԥބԩ৘ۿିđ
²၂สປᆜ֥ඔቆčหљ൞इᆔĎ࠹ෘҠቔژđ
²ႚႵປᆜุ༢֥ඔऌٳ༅۽ऎđ
²ູඔऌٳ༅ބཁൕิ܂఼֥ն๭ྙۿିđ
²၂สčჷሱSე࿽Ďປ೿aࡥֆaႵི֥щӱე࿽čЇও่ࡱa࿖ߌaሱ
ۿԛൻೆൻaඔݦၬקିĎb
ᄝᆃ৚൐Ⴈ"ߌ࣢"čenvironmentĎ൞ູਔඪૼR֥ק໊൞၂۱ປ೿a๤၂֥༢
๤đ۽උڸ֥ࠃਲ҂a૊ህ၂۱ູቔဢପࡱೈ༅ٳऌඔ෰ః٤طऎb
RޓൡކФႨႿؿᅚᇏ֥ྍٚم෮ࣉྛ֥ࢌ޺ൔඔऌٳ༅bႮႿR൞၂۱׮
෿֥ߌ࣢đ෮ၛྍؿ֥҃ϱЧѩ҂ሹ൞აᆭభؿ֥҃ϱЧປಆ࡙ಸbଖུႨ޼
ߋ႒ᆃུэ߄ၹູྍ࠯ඌބྍٚم֥෮ջট֥ݺԩĠႵུᄵ߶քྏ֥ࣸս઒҂
ᄜॖႨb࣐ܵR൫๭Ӯູ၂ᇕᆇᆞ֥щӱე࿽đ֌൞նࡅ҂ေಪູ၂۱ႮRщཿ
֥ӱ྽ॖၛӉଁϤෟb
ೈೈೈࡱࡱࡱބބބ໓໓໓֖֖֖
RॖၛФ֒ቔSე࿽čႮRickBecker,JohnChambersބAllanWilksᄝBellൌဒ൩
षؿĎ֥ൌགྷ۽ऎđࠇᆀS-Plus༢๤֥ࠎЧྙ෿b
Sე࿽֥ؿᅚэ߄ॖၛҕॉJohnChambersაః෰ದކቔ֥ඹЧ඀b
ؓRটඪ,ࠎЧ֥ҕॉ඀൞TheNewSLanguage:AProgrammingEnvironment
,
(Sversion3)ॖၛҕॉStatistical
؟۷֥ҕ
ॉ඀ଢ౨ҰुЧ൭Ҩ֥ཌྷႋ҆ٳb
ՎຓđS-Plus֥ཌྷܱ໓֖׻ॖၛႨႿRđᆺ൞ေᇿၩRაSᆳྛ۽ऎᆭࡗ֥
ҵљb
1:.
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ccuu--ttrraaccccuu--ttrraacc
CHAPTER1.࿂ંაࠎԤ2
๤๤๤࠹࠹࠹
ᄝ໡ૌ၂۱ູቔRϜ׻ದ؟ޓݖ҂đ࠹๤֞ิႵીѩᇏകࢺ֥࣢ߌ࿽ეRؓ
๤࠹༢๤ট൐Ⴈb໡ૌౠཟႿϜ෱֒ቔߌ࣢đ൐֤ׅࣜބགྷս๤࠹࠯ඌᄝః
ᇏ֤֞ႋႨb၂҆؟۷൞֌đᇏ࣢ߌ࿽ეR֥ЧࠎᄝࡹଽФࣜၘٳ֥൞ၛЇ
֥ྙൔิ܂֥bႮ8۱Ї൞ෛሢR၂๝ิ܂֥čӫቔѓሙЇĎđః෱֥ॖၛ๙
ݖCRAN֥Ӯჴຩᅟࠆ֤č๙ݖ-
๙ݖ҂đمٚ࠹๤֥ྍቋᆀࠇׅ֥ࣜඔ؟նधႨ൐ၛॖRݖႨ޼ླေ޽၂ུ
ۿڏটᅳԛᆃᇕٚمb
SčބRĎაః෰ᇶੀ֥๤࠹༢๤ᄝЧᇉഈႵ၂۱ޓᇗေ֥҂๝bᄝSᇏđ
๤࠹ؓᄝԥթݔࢲ֥޺ࢌࡼൈ๝đӮປᇧ֥҄ਙ၂༢Ⴎӈ๙༅ٳའᇏb෮ၛđ
࣐ܵSASބSPSSᄝ၂۱݂߭ࠇᆀ஑љٳ༅ᇏ߶۳ԛپڶ֥ൻԛࢲݔđRᆺ൞
۳ԛ၂۱ቋཬ֥ൻԛđطࡼࢲݔЌթᄝ၂۱ൡ֥֒ؓའᇏႮRݦඔࣉྛު࿃Ұ
࿘b
๤๤๤
൐ႨRቋьࢮ֥ٺᆃbഈᅟቔ۽ྙ๭֥๤༢Գ൪ྛᄎ၂۱ᄝ൞ൔٚᆷଲࣼ൞ູ
ႚႵᆃཛь০֥Ⴈ޼ሙС֥b࣐ܵ໡ૌधն҆ٳ֥ଽಸ׻൞টࢃRߌ࣢֥၂Ϯ
ႋႨđ໡ૌߎ൞߶ൈ҂ൈ֥ิ֞RᄝXwindow༢๤༯֥ႋႨb
აҠቔ༢๤֥ᆰࢤ޺׮ٺᆃᄝb֥ေс൞׻ඪট޼Ⴈඔ؟ؓᆷଲᇏ໡ૌᇶ
ေษંᄝUNIX༢๤༯֥޺׮đ෮ၛWindows༯֥RႨ޼ླေቓԛ၂ུཬ֥ט
ᆜb
ݖ֥໅كטֆႻ֌ིႵطࢤᆰཛ၂൞ᇅק֥ᅟቔ۽ؓӱđᄝᆃ৚໡ૌѩ҂߶
ቔ۷ധೆ֥ษંbೂݔଢ଼ᄝᆃٚ૫მ֞ਔ঒଴ॖၛཟ୆ദш֥ህࡅ࿙౰Ϻᇹb
ࢌࢌࢌ޺޺޺൐൐൐ႨႨႨ
Rӱ྽ᄝ֩րൻೆଁ਷ൈ߶ژൕิ֥ಪଏđژൕิԛ۳൞>,აUNIX֥shellิ
ൕژൕิ֥Rڿ۷֥඾౞ၛॖૌ໡đ߅֥ၩ჻୆ݔೂݖ҂b֥๝ཌྷ൞ژbᄝᆃ
৚໡ૌ༵ࡌژൕิllehs֥XINUק൞$bᄝUNIX༯൐ႨRॖၛοᅶ༯૫֥๷
ࡩࡹ၂۱׿৫֥ሰଢ੣টթԥࢳथᆃ۱໙ี෮Ⴈ֥ඔऌ໓ࡱ,ࡼ
ଢ੣ଁ଀੣ࡼቔູ୆֒భ಩ༀ֥۽ቔଢ੣.
$mkdirwork
$cdwork
׮R֥ӱ྽
$R
3.൐ႨR֥۲ᇕଁ਷
4.๼ԛR
>q()
Վൈଢ଼߶Ф࿘໙൞ڎЌթଢ଼ᄝR಩ༀᇏ֥ඔऌb୆ॖၛ߭ճyes,noࠇcancel(൐
Ⴈ෪੻ሳژ္ॖၛ)ٳљؓႋ๼ԛభЌթඔऌđ҂Ќթඔऌ๼ԛࠇ߭֞R಩ༀ
ᇏbФթԥ֥ඔऌᄝᆭު֥R಩ༀᇏॖၛ࠿࿃൐Ⴈb
ᆭު֥R಩ༀࣼ۽ູӮkrow਷.1bਔֆࡥ۷ቔଢ੣đѩఓ׮Rӱ྽b
$cdwork
$R:.
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ccuu--ttrraaccccuu--ttrraacc
CHAPTER1.࿂ંაࠎԤ3
2.൐ႨRđᄝ಩ༀࢲඏൈႨq()টᇏᆸb
ᄝWindows༯൐ႨR֥҄ᇧაഈ૫ࠎЧཌྷ๝bԷࡹ၂۱໓ࡱࡃቔູ۽ቔଢ
੣đѩࡼఃഡקRॹࢮٚൔ֥ᄝ"ఏ൓໊ᇂ"ᇏbಖުචࠌ๭ѓఓ׮Rb
૊૊૊࿞࿞࿞਀਀਀
໡ૌ٤ӈ๷ࡩ؀ᆀૌᄝ࠿࿃ࣉྛᆭభ๙ݖ၂۱ൕ২টࠆ౼ᄝ࠹ෘࠏഈ൐ႨR֥
ۋतbᆃ۱ൕ২Ⴎൕ২࿞਀۳ԛb
౼౼౼ݦݦݦඔඔඔބބބۿۿۿିିି֥֥֥ϺϺϺᇹᇹᇹྐྐྐ༏༏༏
ބUNIXᇏ֥manଁ਷၂ဢđRႚႵ၂۱ଽࡹ֥ϺᇹۿିbؓႿ಩ၩ၂۱ᆷק
֥ݦඔđ২ೂsolveđଁ਷൞
>help(solve)
ࠇᆀ
>?solve
ؓႿႮห൹ሳژᆷק֥ۿିđᆃུҕඔсྶႨֆႄݼࠇචႄݼওఏটđ൐ᆭ
Ӯູ၂۱oሳژԱpğ๝ൈؓႿଖུݣႵif,forࠇᆀfunction֥ކӮՍ္ေᆃ
ဢԩ৘b
>help("[[")
҂ં൞ֆႄژሳೂ২đᇏ၂۱ਸ਼ᄝݣЇၛॖ׻ݼႄච൞ߎݼԱğ"It'sim-
portant"b໡ૌ֥ܸ২൞൐Ⴈචႄݼb
၂Ϯ౦ঃ༯Ϻᇹ໓֖֥HTML۬ൔ׻൞Фνልਔ֥đॖၛ๙ݖᄎྛ༯૫֥
ଁ਷
>()
ఓ׮၂۱Webᛍফఖ(UNIX༯൞netscapeᛍফఖ)টᛍফЇݣӑࠩ৽ࢤ֥
Ϻᇹ်૫bᄝUNIX༯đު࿃֥Ϻᇹ౨౰߭Фؿෂ֞HTMLູࠎԤ֥Ϻᇹ༢๤
ᇏb်૫ᇏ'SearchEngineandKeywords'৵ࢤॖၛ๙ݖ෮Їݣ֥ਙіؓ
۲ᇕݦඔࣉྛ٤ӈႵི֥Ұ࿘bᆃ൞୆ඃ༑ѩ౏৘ࢳRิ܂֥۲ᇕۿି֥ݺٚ
ٚᇕ؟Ⴈૌ໡਷ଁbمൔটෆ෬Ϻᇹྐ༏ğ༥ࢫބ২ሰॖၛ
Ⴈ?࿘bაଖ۱ᇶีཌྷܱ֥২ሰ๙ӈॖၛႨ༯૫֥ଁ਷֤֞
>example(topic)
WindowsϱЧ֥RߎႵਸ਼ຓॖ࿊֥Ϻᇹ༢๤đབྷ༥ሧਘ౨Ⴈ
>?help
টҰ࿘b
਷਷਷aaaؓؓؓնննཬཬཬཿཿཿ֥֥֥ૹૹૹۋۋۋđđđ֩֩֩֩֩֩
Ֆ࠯ඌ࢘؇টࢃđR൞၂ᇕіղൔე࿽đ෱֥ეم൞٤ӈࡥֆ֥bބն؟
ඔUNIXູࠎԤ֥ೈࡱЇ၂ဢđRؓնཬཿ൞ૹۋ֥đ္ࣼ൞ඪAބa൞҂๝֥
սݼѩ౏ࡼսі҂๝֥эਈbRე࿽଀ӫᇏॖႨ֥ሳژࠢႮ֒భ֥Ҡቔ༢๤थ
ݓུଖᄝ(֥Ⴈॖ൞׻ሳඔބଛሳ֥Ⴕ෮༯ঃ౦ӈᆞb)קथelacolႮࠧ(קࡅ
Їওᇗၻሳژ)đߎЇওओׄ.***note1***đ֌൞ေᇿၩ଀ӫ҂ିၛඔሳष
൓bࠎЧ֥ଁ਷ႮіղൔࠇᆀڮᆴეओቆӮbೂݔ၂۱іղൔФቔູ၂่ଁ਷
۳ԛđ෱ࡼФ౰ᆴaյႆطіղൔ֥ᆴѩ҂ФЌթb၂۱ڮᆴეओ๝ဢؓіղ
ൔ౰ᆴᆭުϜіղൔ֥ᆴԮ۳၂۱эਈđ҂ݖѩ҂߶ሱ׮֥Фյႆԛটbଁ਷
Ⴎٳݼ(;)টٳۯđࠇᆀਸ਼ఏྍྛbࠎЧଁ਷ॖၛႮ޽ওݼ(fބg)ކѩູ၂ቆگ
ކіղൔbᇿ൤ࠫެॖၛФݼࣝၛ൞ေᆺđֹٚޅ಩ᄝ٢(#)ष൓đ֞ྛଌࢲ:.
--XXCChhaannggeeVViiee--XXCChhaannggeeVViiee
DDFFwweerrDDFFwweerr
PPPP
wwwwClicktobuyNOW!mmwwwwClicktobuyNOW!mm
ww..ddookk..ccooww..ddookk..ccoo
ccuu--ttrraaccccuu--ttrraacc
CHAPTER1.࿂ંაࠎԤ4
ඏ֥׻൞ᇿ൤bೂݔ၂۱ଁ਷ᄝྛ଍ಯીႵࢲඏđRࡼ߶۳ԛ၂۱҂๝֥ิൕ
ژđଏಪ֥൞
+
ᄝֻؽྛބު࿃ྛRࡼ࠿࿃؀ೆđᆰ֞ଁ਷Ֆეم࢘؇ࢃၘࣜൻೆປӮਔb
ᆃ۱ิൕژ္ॖၛႮႨ޼۷ڿb၂Ϯ౦ঃޭ੻࠿࿃ൻೆิൕژࣼྛb
਷਷਷֥֥֥࠺࠺࠺ၫၫၫބބބ۷۷۷ڿڿڿ
ᄝྸ؟ϱЧ֥UNIXބWindows༯đRิ܂ਔؓၘൻೆଁ਷࠺ၫބᄜՑᆳྛ֥
၂ᇕࠏᇅb൐ႨԼᆰٚཟࡰ๨֥ο࡯ॖၛᄝଁ਷࠺੣ᇏཟభࠇཟުݏ׮b֒
၂۱ଁ਷Ⴈᆃᇕٚمק໊ᆭުđ୆ࣼॖၛ൐ႨቐႷ࡯ڿэܻѓ໊֥ᇂđؓଁ
਷ྛࣉྛщࠠ(Ⴈ<DEL>೷Ԣࠇᆀοః෰ο࡯ࣉྛเࡆ)bཌྷྐ֥ሧਘᄝ഍ު
ิ܂ğҕ࡮ଁ਷ྛщࠠఖb࠺ၫބщࠠקॖ؇ۚ൞༯UNIXᄝିۿᇅ֥b୆
ॖၛᄝreadline९֥൭Ҩᇏᅳ֞ऎุ֥ٚمbቔູ࿊ᄴđEmacs֥໓Чщࠠ
ఖิ܂ਔ၂ᇕ۷ູ၂Ϯ֥ᆦӻࠏᇅ(๙ݖESSđEmacsSpeaksStatistics)ট
ູR༯૫֥ࢌ޺۽ቔڛༀbҕ࡮RބEmacsb
਷਷਷໓໓໓ࡱࡱࡱ֥֥֥ᆳᆳᆳྛྛྛބބބൻൻൻԛԛԛ֥֥֥ሇሇሇཟཟཟ֞֞֞໓໓໓ࡱࡱࡱ
ೂݔଁ਷թԥႿ၂۱ຓ҆໓ࡱᇏđбೂ۽ቔଢ੣෰
ૌॖၛෛൈᄝR֥಩ༀᇏФᆳྛ
>source("")
ᄝWindowsᇏSource္ॖၛႮFileҒֆᆳྛbݦඔsinkđ
>sink("")
ࡼϜ෮Ⴕު࿃֥ൻԛႮᇔ؊ሇཟ၂۱ຓ҆໓ࡱ਷
>sink()
ࡼϜྐ༏ᇗྍ߫گ֞ᇔ؊ഈb

R෮ԷࡹaҠቔ֥ൌุ൞ؓའbؓའॖၛ൞эਈaඔቆaሳژԱaݦඔၛࠣႮ
ᆃུჭ෍ቆӮ֥ః෱ࢲܒbᄝ၂۱R֥಩ༀݖӱᇏđؓའ۴ऌ଀ӫФԷࡹބթ
ԥ(໡ૌࡼᄝ༯ݖ۱ᆃંษᇏ਀࿞۱ӱ)b༯૫֥ଁ਷
>objects()
(ቔູ࿊ᄴđls()ॖၛ)ФႨটཁൕଢభթԥᄝRᇏ֥ؓའ֥଀ሳbط֒భթ
ԥ֥෮Ⴕؓའ֥ቆކФӫູworkspaceb
ౢԢؓའॖၛ൐Ⴈrmଁ਷ğ
>rm(x,y,z,ink,junk,temp,foo,bar)
෮Ⴕᄝ၂۱R಩ༀᇏФԷࡹ֥ؓའ׻ॖၛᄝ໓ࡱᇏФႥࣲЌթđѩᄝః
෱֥R಩ༀᇏФ൐Ⴈbᄝૄ۱R಩ༀࢲඏൈႨ޼׻Ⴕࠏ߶Ќթ֒భႵི֥
෮ႵؓའbೂݔႨ޼ᆃဢቓ֥߅đؓའࡼФཿೆ֒భଢ੣၂۱଀
***Note3***b֒RФᄜՑఓ׮ൈR߶Ֆᆃ۱໓ࡱᇏᄜᄛೆworkspaceb๝ൈ
ཌྷܱ֥ଁ਷࠺੣္Фᄛೆb
๷ࡩնࡅᄝႨRࣉྛ҂๝֥ݖ༅ٳᄝb੣ଢቔ۽֥๝҂Ⴈ൐љٳൈ༅ٳӱ
ᇏԷࡹ଀ູxࠇy֥ؓའ൞ޓ௴๙֥bᄝ၂۱ֆ׿֥ٳ༅ᇏ෱ૌ֥ݣၬ္߶ޓౢ
༉đ֌൞ೂٳགྷؿ߶ࡼ୆߅֥৘ԩФᇏ੣ଢቔ۽၂۱๝ᄝ༅ٳ֥๝҂۱ࠫݔя
෱ૌ֥ݣၬ൞ࡱޓ๥७֥൙౦b:.
--XXCChhaannggeeVViiee--XXCChhaannggeeVViiee
DDFFwweerrDDFFwweerr
PPPP
wwwwClicktobuyNOW!mmwwwwClicktobuyNOW!mm
ww..ddookk..ccooww..ddookk..ccoo
ccuu--ttrraaccccuu--ttrraacc
Chapter2
ࡥࡥࡥֆֆֆҠҠҠቔቔቔĠĠĠඔඔඔᆴᆴᆴაააཟཟཟਈਈਈ

Rؓଁ଀ਔ֥ඔऌࢲܒࣉྛҠቔbቋࡥֆ֥ඔऌࢲܒ൞ඔሳཟਈđඔሳཟਈ൞
Ⴎ၂ቆႵ྽ඔሳቆӮ֥ֆ۱ൌุb༯૫֥Rଁ਷ࡼԷࡹ၂۱଀ູxđЇݣ5۱ඔ
ሳ(,,,)֥ཟਈğ
>x<-c(,,,,)
ഈ૫֥ࣼ൞၂۱൐Ⴈݦඔc()֥ڮᆴݖӱđఃᇏݦඔc()֥ቔႨ൞ࡼҕඔᇏ֥
ඔᆴཟਈၛࠣཟਈ֥ᆴ൮ແཌྷࢤቆӮ၂۱ྍ֥ཟਈb၂۱ඔሳྙӮ֥ཟਈॖၛ
ФुቔӉ؇ູ1bᇿၩڮᆴҠቔژ(<-)҂൞๙ӈ֥=Ҡቔژđ=൞ູਸ਼